I am a huge fan of detective stories and have become an even bigger fan of British detectives and their uncanny ability to unwind tangled stories, unearth evil motives, foil the plots and eventually ensnare even the most ruthless of criminals. These eventual victories come as a result of a detective’s painstaking attention to detail, the art of establishing a timeline, understanding the context of the crime in question and gathering evidence. The best stories take us by surprise when, often at the last minute, a new slice of information upsets the original timeline, or a new piece of evidence is introduced. It must be the thrill of the hunt that draws me in.

In many ways, the work of theology and missiology is similar—details and timelines are important, and understanding the context is key. By looking back across history, it becomes clear, the roots of evangelicalism are influenced by four powerful religious currents. Here in Part Two and next week in Part Three, I will provide a brief overview of the emergence of revivalism by way of the three Great Awakenings and the Mid-Century Awakening, which helps to inform Bill Bright’s mid-twentieth century context. And for the record, I am providing only an overview.  

The First Great Awakening (1730–1755): Calvinist Leanings*

Importantly, the First Great Awakening began at a point of crisis for post-Reformation Protestants whose continued infighting eventually created a great fracture within the Protestant tradition. Douglas A. Sweeney attributes this “pattern of schism”[1] to the reverberating effects of the Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648) that resulted in a required alliance to either Catholics, Lutherans, or Reformed, all of which excluded the subversive Anabaptists.[2] Pietism began to surface with characteristics that included individual crisis conversion, personal transformation, and an intense commitment to evangelism. These same characteristics also marked evangelical revivalism.

The First Great Awakening, stimulated by Jonathan Edwards’s (1703–1758) personalized Calvinism, was also influenced by Pietism’s emphasis on an individual crisis conversion experience, personal transformation evidenced by spiritual growth, and evangelistic zeal. Personalized Calvinism also included the sovereignty of God, original sin, and justification by faith in the face of God’s irresistible grace. These revivalist characteristics held steady until the late eighteenth century.

Noticeably, George Whitefield (1714–1770) emphasized spiritual regeneration through rebirth compared to Edwards’s emphasis on justification by faith, and the Wesley brothers, John (1703–1791) and Charles (1707–1788) emphasized on a second blessing. In addition, an expansive volunteerism added important dimensions to revivalism well into the twentieth century. But as America braced for the Revolutionary War (1775–1789), the First Great Awakening waned and gave way to the Second Great Awakening and an emphasis on Arminianism.

The Second Great Awakening (1790–1840)

The end of the eighteenth century marked the dawn of the Second Great Awakening. This awakening was aided in part by the spread of Great Britain’s Concerts of Prayer and also by prayer meetings hosted by the interdenominational London Missionary Society (formed in 1791).[3] In addition, Protestants’ postmillennial orientation included the belief that the closer society got to perfection, the sooner Christ would return.

This triumphant faith in human ability was reinforced by the revivals at Yale University, Williams College’s Haystack Prayer Meeting, camp meetings like the Cane Ridge Revival, and the work of American Methodist Circuit Riders like Bishop Francis Asbury (1745–1816). Arminian revivalist Charles Finney (1792–1875) took the revival spirit from camp meetings to urban centers and gave shape to a more measured revivalism. He taught that religion is the work of man, and revivals are the result of the right use of the right means.[4] Finney also chose to preach directly to the individual, often calling out specific sinners and sins. He is well-known for instigating the Anxious Bench, placed near the preacher, where serious seekers would sit in order to indicate their desire to convert.

The emphasis on prayer, evident throughout the Second Great Awakening, began to add new contours to the boundaries of revivalism. In addition, this awakening provided the impetus for the formation of new denominations and societies that became catalysts for revival and expansion.[5] Societies that emphasized volunteerism organized around specific goals and were a byproduct of a concerted effort to Christianize and reform America. These evangelical parachurch organizations created institutions to meet a variety of social needs and helped pave the way for the “nationalization of United States public culture.”[6]

These societies and volunteer organizations, formed during the Second Great Awakening, also paved the way for the modern missions movement and provided a template for twentieth century parachurch organizations, such as, Cru (Campus Crusade for Christ) and is significant for our series of stories, Youth for Christ, Navigators, and InterVarsity Christian Fellowship.

Reflection

Instructively, by reflecting back across the centuries we can discern the emergence of evangelicalism and revivalist characteristics born out of different contexts and conflicts. Keep in mind that revivalist characteristics remained strong, such as the Pietist focus on the individual’s crisis conversion, personal transformation through spiritual birth, and personal holiness. Additionally, there emerged the necessity of specialized training for effective evangelism and a means for measuring personal conversion that lasted well into the twentieth century. A notable point to remember is the profound influence of a post-millennial eschatology. This optimism changes drastically after World War I and soon pre-millennial eschatology takes a prominent place in evangelical revivalism.

We will pause here, on the brink of the twentieth century. Next time, I will provide an overview of the Third Great Awakening (1850–1920) and the Mid-Century Awakening (early 1940s–1950s).

*Portions of this post are taken from: Monaco, Cas. “Bill Bright’s (1921–2003) Four Spiritual Laws Reimagined: A Narrative Approach to Meaningful Gospel Conversations For An American Twenty First Century Secularized Context,” PhD Diss, Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary. Wake Forest, NC, 2020.

[1] Douglas A. Sweeney, The American Evangelical Story: A History of the Movement (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2005), 28.[2] The Thirty Years War, 1618–1648, was a brutal Central European conflict that started between the Catholic and Protestant states within the Roman Empire. The Peace of Westphalia, signed in 1648, put an end to the conflict. According to Justo L. Gonzales in The Reformation to the Present Day, Vol. 2 of The History of Christianity (New York: HarperCollins, 2010), 183, “In religious matters, it was agreed that all—princes as well as their subjects—would be free to follow their own religion, as long as they were Catholics, Lutherans, or Reformed.”[3] Mark Noll, The Rise of Evangelicalism: The Age of Edwards, Whitefield, and the Wesleys (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2003), 109. [4] Finney, Autobiography, 93. [5] Noll, “Great Awakenings,” DTIB:522. [6] Sweeney, American Evangelical, 74.